FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT) is a signaling protein synthesized in leaves and transported to the shoot apical meristem, where it functions as florigen, a key inducer of flowering and developmental transitions. Substantial progress has been made in elucidating the mechanisms underlying FT synthesis, transport, and the assembly and regulation of the florigen activation complex (FAC), providing a solid foundation for understanding plant developmental regulatory networks. Recently, a study integrated multiple regulatory layers, including protein-DNA interactions, liquid-liquid phase separation, and spatiotemporal expression patterns, thereby extending the traditional static FAC model into a dynamic and multilayered assembly framework. This work offers new molecular insights into how plants integrate environmental cues to regulate reproductive development. In this review, we summarize recent advances in FT and FAC research, highlight key outstanding questions, and discuss future directions, aiming to provide fresh perspectives for elucidating plant developmental regulation and for potential applications in crop improvement.
The TCP protein family is a plant-specific group of transcription factors known to regulate key biological processes, including growth and development, as well as stress responses. Despite their critical roles, the TCP gene family in Bergenia purpurascens remains uncharacterized. This study aims to systematically identify and analyze the BpTCP gene family in B. purpurascens using transcriptome-based bioinformatics approaches, providing new insights into their potential functions in cold adaptation and secondary metabolism.
B. purpurascens exhibits remarkable resilience to abiotic stresses, particularly cold, and contains abundant secondary metabolites. Given the documented roles of TCP genes in stress responses and metabolic regulation in other plants, we hypothesized that BpTCP genes may contribute to these traits. A comprehensive analysis of this gene family could reveal novel mechanisms underlying stress adaptation and metabolite synthesis, supporting future genetic improvement and biotechnological applications.
Through transcriptome-based bioinformatics analysis, we identified 16 BpTCP genes in B. purpurascens, which were phylogenetically classified into two major groups, with all members containing conserved TCP domains and closely related proteins sharing similar motif patterns. Tissue-specific expression profiling revealed distinct spatial expression patterns across different tissues, suggesting functional diversification among family members. Notably, partial genes, including BpTCP10, BpTCP1 and BpTCP12, exhibited significant expression changes under cold stress, implying their potential cold-responsive roles. Furthermore, expression levels of specific BpTCP genes correlated significantly with accumulation of various secondary metabolites, particularly flavonoids and phenolics, suggesting their regulatory involvement in metabolic pathways.
This study provides the first genome-wide characterization of the BpTCP gene family in B. purpurascens, demonstrating its potential roles in growth and development as well as cold stress response, and secondary metabolism. The differential expression of BpTCP genes under stress and their correlation with metabolite levels lay a foundation for future functional studies.
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are important secondary metabolites in plants, with significant physiological, ecological, economic, and ornamental value. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) is a classical method for detecting and analyzing plant volatile aromas and is often regarded as the gold standard. However, its sample preparation is laborious and time-consuming, and real-time detection is difficult to achieve, which limits its application in large-scale sample analyses. Therefore, there is an urgent need to develop a method capable of accurate, real-time, and rapid detection of specific plant VOCs.
Proton transfer reaction-time of flight-mass spectrometry (PTR-ToF-MS) enables real-time quantitative analysis of complex VOC mixtures due to its high sensitivity, rapid response, and non-destructive soft ionization mechanism. Nevertheless, its inability to effectively distinguish between volatile isomers and the tendency for compound fragmentation prevent it from fully replacing the powerful qualitative capabilities of GC-MS. Integrating the strengths of both techniques could lead to an efficient and accurate VOC detection system. Using Hedychium plants as an example, this study systematically combines GC-MS and PTR-ToF-MS to establish a technical workflow aiming to identify marker ions that can rapidly predict the emission of specific VOCs, thereby improving the efficiency of aroma compound detection.
Using Hedychium plants as the study subject, this method details a technical framework that integrates GC-MS and PTR-ToF-MS to establish a rapid detection system for specific aromatic compounds. Key steps—including sample collection, parameter optimization, and data acquisition—are outlined. Additionally, a cross-platform data integration method based on partial least squares regression (PLSR) is introduced, along with detailed code execution steps. By constructing a robust and optimized prediction model, the PTR-ToF-MS spectral peak at m/z 155.144 was identified as a stable marker for predicting linalool emissions. This result was validated in two independent aroma datasets, demonstrating the successful application of PTR-ToF-MS for rapid quantification of target aromatic components.
This study addresses the limitations of GC-MS in large-scale sample applications by incorporating PTR- ToF-MS and integrating the advantages of both techniques. Using Hedychium as a model, a rapid detection system for specific aroma compounds was established, with detailed descriptions of the technical workflow and a cross-platform data integration method, including code implementation. A predictive model identified a robust marker for linalool emissions, validated across independent datasets, enabling rapid quantification of target aroma components via PTR-ToF-MS. These findings provide a new strategy for plant VOCs detection, with potential to advance detection technologies and improve efficiency and accuracy. The approach shows broad application prospects in plant physiology and ecology research, quality evaluation of economic crops, and aroma regulation in ornamental plants.
Blackberry (Rubus fruticosus) is an important economic crop whose fruits are not only rich in fiber, vitamins, and phenolic metabolites, but also have significant health benefits. Traditional blackberry propagation methods, including seed propagation, layering, cutting, and suckering, have various limitations. For example, seed propagation has a long cycle, a low germination rate, and variable offspring traits. In contrast, tissue culture-based rapid propagation technology offers distinct advantages, such as season-independent operation, a high multiplication coefficient, and preservation of superior maternal traits, making it an effective solution for blackberry plantlet propagation. Therefore, it is necessary to establish an efficient blackberry rapid propagation system, which would lay the foundation for large-scale production of high-quality virus-free plantlets and germplasm innovation.
The establishment of an in vitro regeneration system for blackberry stem segments is based on the theory of plant cell totipotency and hormonal regulatory mechanisms, under which the meristematic cells of stem segments can regenerate into complete plants under suitable culture conditions. To establish a stable regeneration system for blackberry APF-190T, we investigated the effects of sterilization conditions, medium types, and the types and concentrations of plant growth regulators on primary culture, proliferation culture, and rooting culture. Additionally, the influence of different substrates on the growth of tissue-cultured plantlets was further analyzed.
Comparative experiments on disinfection durations revealed that a 7-minute treatment yielded optimal results for blackberry explants, with the lowest contamination rate of 20.00%, a relatively low browning rate of 6.67%, and the highest survival rate of 73.33%. In MS media, these conditions produced the best stem segment growth, with a maximum bud induction rate of 63.33%, characterized by abundant germinated buds reaching an average length of 1.41 cm. For primary culture, the combination of 1.0 mg∙L–1 6-BA+0.2 mg∙L–1 NAA was the most effective, achieving a 100% bud induction rate and producing robust seedlings with dark green leaves. Subsequent proliferation culture with a combination of 0.8 mg∙L–1 6-BA and 0.1 mg∙L–1 NAA resulted in the highest adventitious bud proliferation coefficient of 12.51 and the tallest average bud height of 3.83 cm, along with vigorous growth. The rooting efficiency peaked in 1/2MS medium supplemented with 1.0 mg∙L–1 NAA, attaining a 97.78% rooting rate with an average of 5.11 thick roots per plant, featuring well-developed lateral roots and abundant fine roots. Finally, transplantation success was maximized when a 2:1 (v/v) peat-vermiculite substrate was used, resulting in a 95.56% survival rate with robust plant growth, expanded leaves, and continuous root development.
For in vitro propagation of blackberry stem explants, the optimal sterilization protocol was achieved using 75% ethanol for 30 s followed by 2% sodium hypochlorite for 7 min. For primary culture, the most suitable medium was MS+1.0 mg∙L–1 6-BA+0.2 mg∙L–1 NAA. For shoot proliferation, the best results were obtained with MS+0.8 mg∙L–1 6-BA+0.1 mg∙L–1 NAA, promoting optimal shoot multiplication. During the rooting stage, the highest rooting efficiency was observed in the 1/2MS+1.0 mg∙L–1 NAA group. For ex vitro acclimatization, a peat mixture proved most effective for seedling survival and growth under controlled greenhouse conditions, and this technique can potentially be applied for commercialization of the plant.
DA1 peptidase is a key plant protease that and plays crucial roles in plant growth, development, and environmental adaptation. In recent years, with the improvement of gene editing technology, the function mechanism of DA1 peptidase have gradually been elucidated. All studies show that DA1 peptidase is regulated at the transcriptional and post-translational levels. Although there are plenty of studies on specific biological functions of DA1 peptidase, there still lacks systematic and comprehensive summaries of the research progress on DA1. This review briefly describes the molecular structure of DA1 peptidase, summarizes the regulatory mechanisms of DA1 peptidase, and focuses on its biological functions in regulating organ size, responding to salt and drought stresses, and activating immune responses to biological stresses. In addition, we have summarized the role of DA1 peptidase in the regulation of vascular cambium activity and auxin signal transduction. This review aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the complex functions and regulatory networks of DA1 peptidase.
Maize is a main cereal crop in China. The number of tassel branches significantly affects density-tolerant plant architecture, which is the key to increasing yield. Currently, multiple genes associated with tassel branch number, many of which are closely related to plant hormone pathways, have been cloned and identified. This review summarizes the roles and signaling pathways of auxin, cytokinin, strigolactone, gibberellin and abscisic acid in regulating maize tassel branch number, preliminarily investigates the interaction mechanisms among hormones and the impact of environmental factors on hormonal regulatory mechanisms, and outlines the hormonal regulation network for tassel branch number in maize. These findings suggest that plant hormones integrate environmental factors to regulate the tassel branch number. This review aims to provide a theoretical reference for revealing the molecular mechanisms of phytohormone regulation of maize tassel branch number and to lay a scientific foundation for novel cultivars of the maize ideotype through plant hormones.
Recent research has discovered that an ancient homoploid interspecific hybridization event between ancestral species of the tomato lineage (Solanum sect. Lycopersicon) and sect. Etuberosum lineage in the nightshade family (Solanaceae) gave rise to the ancestral species of the potato lineage (sect. Petota) and generated the innovative "potato" tuber trait. This hybridization event not only introduced this key innovative trait but also triggered the exploitation of new ecological niches, ultimately leading to the explosive emergence of species within the potato clade. This study, together with related case studies in recent years, collectively reveals the universality of the molecular mechanism of homoploid hybrid speciation—namely, "generating innovative traits through the alternate inheritance of highly diverged alleles from both parental lineages". These findings hold significant implications for revising the traditional bifurcating speciation model and advancing the paradigm shift in artificial breeding practices.
INTRODUCTION: 14-3-3 proteins are a highly conserved protein family that specifically recognize phosphorylated target proteins and play crucial roles in plant abiotic stress responses. By interacting with AREB/ABF (ABA-responsive element binding protein/ABA-responsive element binding factor) transcription factors, 14-3-3 proteins participate in ABA signal transduction and regulate abiotic stress tolerance. TaGRF3-D is a 14-3-3 protein gene in wheat (Triticum aestivum), and our previous studies revealed that the expression of this gene was upregulated under ABA and abiotic stress.
RATIONALE: To explore the biological function of the TaGRF3-D gene, we cloned the gene, and investigated its subcellular localization and function under drought stress.
RESULTS: The results revealed that TaGRF3-D is highly conserved in monocotyledonous plants and is localizes in the nucleus and plasma membrane. Compared with the wild type, the Arabidopsis thaliana transgenic lines overexpressing TaGRF3-D presented significantly longer roots under PEG and ABA treatments and showed a markedly greater survival rate after drought stress. Yeast two-hybrid analysis revealed that TaGRF3-D interacted with wheat TaABF3-B, TaABF4-A, TaABF15-D, TaABF16-B, TaABF17-D, and TaABF18-B, but not with TaABF1-D, TaABF2-A or TaABF19-A.
CONCLUSION: These results suggest that TaABF3-D responds to ABA signaling by interacting with wheat TaABF transcription factors, thereby increasing the drought stress tolerance of transgenic plants.
Phenotypes of the TaGRF3-D transgenic lines and the wild type (WT) under drought stress (A) and interaction between the TaGRF3-D protein and the ABF protein (B). Bars=1 cm
INTRODUCTION: Marigold (Tagetes erecta), an important ornamental and medicinal plant, has a unique capitulum characteristic of the Asteraceae family with distinct ray and disc florets. However, the lack of efficient genetic transformation system has limited the research on the mechanism of floral organ development of marigold. Floral transient transformation system offers a rapid approach to study the function of genes expressed specifically in floral organs. This study aimed to establish an efficient transient transformation system for marigold corollas and to analyze the promoter activity of TeCYC2c, which highly expressed in corollas, thereby laying the technical foundation for the rapid verification of floral gene function.
RATIONALE: A fusion expression vector, incorporating the CaMV35S promoter and the GUS reporter gene, was constructed to facilitate the transient transformation in marigold corollas. The study delved into the effects of bacterial strain type (GV3101, LBA4404, EHA105), bacterial suspension concentration (OD600 values 0.5-2.0), infection duration (10- 40 min), and co-culture time (1-4 d) on the transient transformation efficiency of the GUS gene. Based on this transient transformation system for the marigold corollas, the promoter activity of the TeCYC2c gene was investigated. A 1 735 bp upstream sequence of the TeCYC2c gene was cloned and four promoter deletion expression vectors, with the GUS gene as the reporter gene, were constructed based on the distribution and quantity of elements predicted by PlantCARE. Subsequently, these vectors were employed for transient transformation of marigold corollas to facilitate an in-depth analysis of promoter activity.
RESULTS: The transient transformation efficiency in marigold corollas demonstrated that the GV3101 strain achieved the highest infection efficiency; the bacterial suspension concentration, quantified at an OD600 value of 1.0, yielded the most robust transformation efficiency; the infection time was observed to exert no substantial influence on transient transformation efficacy; moreover, a co-culture time of 24 hours was identified as the optimal condition for the process. The results of GUS staining and GUS activity assay revealed that the core region of the promoter was located at -650 to -1 bp. It was speculated that the light-responsive elements within this region positively up-regulated the expression of downstream genes, while the hormone-responsive and stress-responsive elements unique to pTeCYC2c (-1 735) and pTeCYC2c (-1 406) might have an inhibitory effect on promoter-driven downstream gene expression.
CONCLUSION: This study established an efficient transient transformation system for marigold corollas, optimized through strain selection and parameter tuning. The identification of the TeCYC2c promoter core region (-650 to -1 bp) and its regulatory elements provides critical insights into the regulatory mechanism of the TeCYC2c gene. The transient transformation system and promoter analysis method lay a technical foundation for accelerating functional studies of floral development genes in marigold, with potential applications in the genetic improvement of ornamental plants.
GUS staining of marigold (Tagetes erecta) corollas under different transient transformation conditions. (A) GUS staining of marigold corollas infected by three different bacterial strains; (B) GUS staining under four different concentrations (OD600) of bacterial suspension; (C) GUS staining under four different infection duration; (D) GUS staining under four different co-culture time. (A)-(D) Bars=1 cm
INTRUDUCTION: Xanthopappus subacaulis, endemic to the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau, is a perennial medicinal plant from the genus Xanthopappus of the family Asteraceae, with important economic, ecological and medicinal values. However, genomic information for this species remains limited, hindering further genetic studies and resource utilization. Determining an appropriate sequencing strategy for its whole genome is a key prerequisite for subsequent genomic studies.
RATIONALE: In order to determine the appropriate sequencing strategy for the whole genome of X. subacaulis, we analyzed and evaluated its genome size, heterozygosity, repeat and GC content using flow cytometry and genome survey analysis based on BGI sequencing.
RESULTS: Flow cytometry analyses using Opisthopappus longilobus and Solanum lycopersicum as reference genomes indicated that X. subacaulis was a diploid, with an estimated genome size of 1.94 G and 1.75 G respectively, and a DNA-C value of 0.99 pg. We generated approximately 100.3 G of clean short read sequencing data, with a GC content of 38.5%. K-mer analysis indicated that the genome size of X. subacaulis was 2 198.50 Mb, with a heterozygosity rate of 0.69%, and repeat content of 80.15%. The analysis of the long terminal repeat retrotransposons (LTR-RTs) indicated that the LTR/Copia was the most abundant LTR family, accounting for 30.72% of the whole genome, while the Gypsy family and the unknown LTRs accounted for 33.66% and 16.54%, respectively. Moreover, their peak insertion time began approximately three million years ago (Mya), with a marked amplification occurring within the last 1 Mya. These results suggested that the large-scale insertion of LTR elements was (most) likely one of the important factors leading to the genomic complexity of X. subacaulis.
CONCLUSION: This study clarifies the key genomic characteristics of X. subacaulis, which provides valuable reference data resources for subsequent genetic map construction and functional gene mining of X. subacaulis, and also lays a foundation for determining its whole-genome sequencing strategy.
Growth morphology and genomic characteristics of Xanthopappus subacaulis. (A) Growth morphology of X. subacaulis (bar=5 cm); (B) Depth and frequency distribution of K-mer and insertion time analysis of long terminal repeat retrotransposons (LTR-RTs)
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